38周胎盘三级危险高吗:英语文章,关于中西文明礼仪的差异

中西方礼仪文化差异
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来源：洪恩论坛 English Cafe 日期：2005-4-12 作者：long007 阅读：18636 次

With China entry the WTO and will hold the Olympic Games in 2008, the relationship between China and Western in politics, economy, culture will become more and more close. It is undoubtedly that the etiquette will play an important role in this process. To the definition of etiquette, China and Western have a different understanding. As Chinese thinks that the etiquette is the common behavior standards that all the members must obey, and its purpose is to keep the normal living order of the society. In ancient China, a famous philosopher thinks that etiquette is a principal to deal with the relationship between man and supernatural beings, man and ghosts, man and men. There are also many words about etiquette
in English. For example, courtesy which means courteous behavior, good manners;
protocol which means system of rules governing formal occasion, e .g, meetings,
between governments, diplomats, etc. And these words are all from the same French word etiquette. Of course, more spread and more profound cultural comment of
the western etiquette is from the Classical Period, i.e., old Athens and Roma culture. Today, etiquette become the reflection and manifestation of one country’
s politics, economy, culture in people’s social contact. And it include the principal and moral that people should obey in daily life. Etiquette formed in the
process of the deposition of culture and social contact. So every nation have their own etiquette standard which created with the spirit of this their nation. Because of this formed the cultural difference between different nations. As languages is the carrier of the human culture. This difference must reflect in the language of different nations. So in the following, we will take china, British and America as the representation of Western, to look at some cultural difference
in etiquette, and then analyze the reasons. Furthermore, we will discuss how to
learn western culture.
一.
Cultural differences on politeness between western and Chinese can be found in
many aspects of daily communication, including addressing, greeting and parting,
compliments, apologies, thanks, etc. In the following, we will look at some cultural different between China and western.
1.Greeting and Parting
When people meet acquaintances or friends, people usually greet each other
. The purpose of greeting is to establish or maintain social contact. So formulaic expressions are often used, but such formulaic expressions often causes conflict because of the great cultural differences between Chinese and native English
speakers. In English, people often employ the following expressions to greet each other “Good morning/evening/afternoon. “Fine day, isn’t it? ”How is everything going?” Have you eaten yet?” What are you going to do?” Where have you
been?”etc. Westerners treat them as real question. While in Chinese, we always
say “你吃了吗？”“你上哪里去？”“你干什么去？”to show our consideration. Parting may be divided into two steps. Before the final prating, there is usual a
leave-taking. Western and Chinese cultures have diverse ways to deal with leave-
takings. Firstly, in English society, during the closing phase of an encounter,
from ”I” perspective, reasons for terminating the encounter are presented in mitigatory comments. Typical comments are associated with expressions of apology,
such as “I” am afraid I must be off, I have to relieve the baby-sitter” etc.
Western people believe that to be willing to visit and converse with someone is
to have respect for him.; to terminate the visiting is not of one’s own free will, but because of some other arrangements, therefore they always try to make their leaving sound reluctant by finding some reasons and apologize for it to make the leaving acceptable for both parties. English speakers often signal several
times before leaving. “Well, it’s been nice to see you again. I do enjoy our
talk and the lovely dinner, but I must be going soon”. Thank you very much for
asking me over. I hope we’ll be able to get together again before long…” Consolidation in a wider range of common acquaintances also occurs, in expressions such as “Say hello to Jack for me” or “Remember me to John”. In Chinese society, during the closing phase of and encounter, usually, from a “you ”perspective, reasons for ending the encounter are set forth in mitigatory expressions. Such expressions include“你挺忙的，我就不多打扰了。”“你一定累了，早点休息吧，我
要告辞了。”, etc. With these words, they may stand up from their seats. Chinese
leave-taking is very short and quick. Western people think it so abrupt that they have not prepare for it. While moving to the door, Chinese employ expressions
of apology like“对不起没，打扰了。”“对不起，占用你不少时间。”It should be noted that these expressions employed by Chinese guests to show concern for their
hosts can only be appropriate for business visits in the English environment2..AddressingBoth western and Chinese people have two kinds of personal names---a surname and
a given name. But the order and the use of these names in the two languages are
somewhat different. In Chinese, the surname comes first and then the given name
. And people like add“小”before their family name. Such as“小王”、“小郑”、
“小李”、“小徐”and so on.. While westerners names are written and spoken with
the given name first and the family name last. So John Smith's family name is Smith, not John. In a formal setting, address men as "Mister" (abbreviated as "Mr
."), married women as "Misses" (abbreviated as "Mrs."), and unmarried women as "
Miss" (abbreviated as "Ms."). These days many women prefer to be addressed using
the abbreviations "Ms." or "M.", pronounced "miz". If the person has an M.D. or
Ph.D., they will often be addressed as "Doctor" (abbreviated as "Dr."). Faculty
are addressed as "Professor" (abbreviated as "Prof.").In an informal situation,
westerners will introduce each other by first name, without titles, and occasionally by just the last name. If you are introduced to somebody by first name, you can address him or her by first name the next time you meet. The only exception would be for someone who holds an important position, such as the university president or provost. Unless they tell you otherwise, faculty should be addressed
using their title and last name (e.g., "Professor Smith"). When in doubt, use the formal manner of address, since it is better to err on the side of formality.
It is also appropriate to ask how they prefer to be addressed. Children should
always address adults in the formal fashion, using their title and last name.
Another difference is about the form of addressing. From the viewpoint of sociolinguistics, forms of addressing can serve as an indication of the relationship of power and solidarity in the society. In calling their superiors or elders, the
Chinese are accustomed to the nonreciprocal or asymmetrical addressing, in other words. They use “title +surname” to address their superior or elders rather
than call them surnames, while the superior or elders call the addressers their
names. The Chinese tend to abide by the polite principle of depreciating oneself
and respecting others to show appropriate respects towards the persons being addressed, otherwise, the addresser may be considered as ill mannered, ill educated or rude. But in English speaking countries, people have a tendency to follow the reciprocal or symmetrical addressing. Although they are different in age and
status, they can call the other directly, namely, their names, even first names
except when they call the doctors, not arousing offence between them, but demonstrating the sense of intimacy and the conception of” Everyone is created equal”
. Chinese people feel unnatural addressing a westerner by his given name, feeling that it indicates too close a relationship, and westerners, on the other hand,
may feel that if a Chinese insists on using his surname, it indicates an unwillingness to be friendly and maintains a gap between them. So the use of forms like” Miss Mary” or “Mr. Smith ” may be a Chinese forms of compromise. With Miss Mary, the use of the given name indicates friendliness, but the addition of the title indicates the respect they feel they ought to show. And with Smith, the
lack of a title indicates friendliness, but the use of the surname prevents if sounding too intimate. However, both addressing used by the Chinese sound very strange and uncomfortable to the westerner.
3.Compliments and ResponseTo compliment is to praise the addressee’s virtues, ability, behavior, appearance, clothing, personality and belongs. Appropriate compliments can serve as effective supplementary means in inter-personal communication. Western and Chinese culture are at polar opposites about compliment. An western hostess, if she is complimented for her cooking skill, is likely to say,” Oh, I am so glad that you
liked it. I cook it especially for you.” Not so is a Chinese hostess, who will
instead apologize for giving you “Nothing”. They will say“随便作几个菜，不好吃
。”If translate this into English“I just made some dishes casually and they are not very tasty. Perhaps the foreigner will think why you invite me to you family and have the untasty food. You aren't respect me. The English-speaking people
are more active to praise others and to be praise than Chinese people. For example, the Americans are “straight forwardness”, the Chinese take pride in “modesty”. That modesty has left many a Chinese hungry at an Americans table, for Chinese politeness calls for three refusals before one accepts an offer and the Americans hosts take ”no ” to mean “no ”, whether it is the first, second or
third time. Still bigger differences exist in people’s attitude towards compliments, i.e., in the response to compliments. Chinese are tend to efface themselves in words or refuse it, although they do feel comfortable about the compliments
. So many westerners simply feel puzzled or even upset when their Chinese friends refused their compliments. The Chinese people are not intending to be modest with the sacrifice of friendship in so doing, but it is rather
due to the traditional Chinese philosophy, that of modesty. The Chinese people
regard modesty as a most valuable virtue, so they seldom agree to the compliment
on their own.
4.Apologies and ResponsesIf wrong things are done, there must be apologies .As to how to offer apologies,
both western and Chinese people may “I am sorry….”,”I apologize for…”. Etc. But Chinese would like to apologize for the crowded state of their dwellings
and for small numbers of dishes, although the room is big enough and there are many dishes. Chinese stay these to express self-depreciation only out of courtesy
, not having other implication. But the westerners would wonder, since the room
is so large and there are so many dishes, why do they say so. May be they do not
welcome our visit, they don’t like us to eat more. When Chinese contact with westerners, if they do not know these differences, if will lead to misunderstanding. The ways to respond to apologies are different, too.
A: Oh, I’m sorry. I forget it.
B1: It doesn’t matter.
B2: That’s all right.
B2 is westerners. B1 is a Chinese person. “It doesn’t matter” is a translation of “没关系”from Chinese, which is a common pattern in Chinese to respond to
apologies. If a Chinese uses this to respond to apologies, westerners will think
that he is a sharp person, who simply cannot forgive a very little wrong thing.
5. Thanks and Responses
“Thank you” is widely used in English to show gratitude in such cases as being
invited, helped, given a gift, etc. Cultural differences exist between Chinese
and western in how to express thanks and responses. In fact, “Thank you” is uttered in English for more than acknowledging favor or gratitude, and it is often
a means to show politeness. On many occasions, the English use this utterance while the Chinese may say “有劳您了。”or do not say a word at all but just smile or nod. As a matter of fact, “Thank you ” is used more widely by westerners
than Chinese use“谢谢”, for minor favors like borrowing pencil , asking directions, requesting someone to pass on a message , receiving a telephone, etc. “Thank you” not only shows politeness but also carries a person’s grateful feeling for those who offer help. Without using expressions of gratitude, misunderstandings may arise because the help seems to be taken for granted and is mot appreciated, For westerners, each person is an equal individual, whether he is a family member of not. In Chinese, “谢谢”is not frequently used between intimate friends and family members because it may imply a certain distance between the addresser and the addressee. Native speakers may respond to “Thank you ” by saying
: You are welcome /It’s a /my pleasure/ Not at all/ Don’t mention it/That’s all right. While Chinese people may say:“这是我应该做的”， which may convey to
westerners the message that the Chinese did not really want to do it, or that he
/she did it only because it wall his/her duty. This message is quite different
from what the Chinese speaker intended to express.
6. Asking Personal Affairs
People from China do not regard it as asking personal affairs when they ask others name、year、marital status、wages、personal life、belief and political points. It is regard as concerns. While the westerns will think you 侵犯their right
of privacy. when we talk to the westerns, we must avoid asking some questions like this:“How old are you?”、“Are you married？”、“How many children do you
have？”、“How much do you make？”、“What’s your weight?”、“Do you go to the church？”
7.Invitation and Saying Good-Bye
In the culture of British and America, it is very important to consult a time before you invite somebody to attend a banquet or take part in social activities.
Esp. in America, invite somebody means you are borrow times of others. So they respect time very much. While in China, people are prefer to an uninvited guest.
And otherwise, You will be thought unfriendly if you cannot receive an uninvited
guest very well.
8.关切语
In China, we always say“你辛苦了！”、“你一定累了吧！”to show our consideration when somebody from far place. While the westerners do it in a different way.
They will say "How is your trip? "You must be very interesting." These sentences
are all express in psychological aspect. Concerning the old people is the virtue of human race. But different cultures have different styles. In China, people
will say“您年纪大了，你坐吧！”when they 让座to a old man. But this is regarded
as taboo.
二.
Different cultural factors may result in cultural differences, and consequently,
the acknowledgment of the factors that affect the cultural differences will facilitate the understanding of such differences, part of which will vie discuss in
the followings. Since it is impossible to cover all of the factors in this thesis, the factors discussed here are some important ones.
Factors affect cultural differences1. Cultural Background
One of the cultural different reasons between China and western is cultural background. In Spring and Autumn and Warring s periods of China emerged Confucianism, Taoism and other ideologies .As different ideologies developed and combated each other, the basic framework of Chinese civilization was established. And then
Confucianism became the foundation stone of Chinese philosophy system. Confucianism's central doctrine is that of the virtue of Ren. What is Ren? Ren is translated variously as goodness, benevolence, humanity and human-heartedness. In short, Ren means affection and love. For more than 2 thousand years it has molded and shaped the civilization of China and exerted a profound influence upon almost
one fourth of human race. Just as DR. Sun-Yat-Sen said:” Therefore the old morals of loyalty and piety, affection, and love, faithfulness and righteousness, are superior to those of the foreign countries Let alone that peace and harmony. These high standards of morals are our national spirit. "
Different from China, Christianity plays an important role in western. The English speaking countries are generally considered as Christian countries where many
people believe in Christianity. Christianity is the region based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ. He is the founder of Christianity. According to the
doctrine of Christianity, the Trinity is the union of the three forms of God, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Jesus Christ the son of the God, and the holy book of
Christianity is the Bible, which consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament. However, the power of the church cannot compare with the past time, it still influence many aspects of people 's daily life. For example, there are a few
important festivals in the western is concern with Jesus Christ. Christmas day
is a festival in celebration of the birth of the Jesus Christ on Dec.25.Virgin Birth refers to the birth of Christ, which Christians believe to have been caused
by God rather than by ordinary sexual union.
2. Different valuesAnother cultural different reasons between China and western is different value
The concept of Chinese values is often consciously or unconsciously placed in opposition with Western values. Therefore, it is necessary to determine how people
define Western values. Some have stated that the modern Western value system originated in Victorian England, and describe it as social norms and behaviors common in European people during that time. The core of Western values is individualism. David Hitchcock described Western values from a Chinese perspective. He said that, from the Chinese viewpoint, Western values have three levels: 1) physical level – science, technology, business, public administration, and modern capitalist economics; 2) conceptual level – equal opportunity, the role of law; and time management; and 3) core values – open debate, equality, balance of power
; free speech, and democracy. The core of the Chinese value has some relationship with the Confucianism. The ethnic principle of Confucianism is its discovery of the ultimate in the moral character of human relationships in which Confucius
offered the solution for the ills and evils of his days. That is the well-known
Five Relationships: ruler-minister, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger brother and friend-friend. This was explained as“There should be affection between
father and son , righteous sense of duty between ruler and minister, division of
function between man and wife, stratification between old and young, and good faith between friends.”During the more than two thousand years of the feudal period, the ruling class arrange every thing by this relationships, and then formed a class society. In this kind of society, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler
, and a child filial respect to his parent. The result is the humanity is neglected and people have no equality.
Different from China, in the Renaissance period of England, people began to emphasize the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of
their life, but also have the ability to perfect themselves and perform wonders.
This is the rudiment of Humanism. People became respect the humanity from then
on. And then develop into the ideas of what we always said freedom, democracy. Today, take Americans for instance; the top

The differents between American and Chinese
American people have many procedures when they have their dinner.First,they have the soup,and then the principal food,last,they will have the desert.
But we Chinese don't have so many procedures.If we have out "dinner", there will be more dishes.
American eatign is funny. They eat almost everything with a fork,and it appears that holding a knife in one's right hand longer than a few seconds is considered to be against good table manners.
In our country,we just use two sticks.

Different eating customs between China and the west.

1. When eating out with friends, it's comment for westerners to go Dutch. Chinese people seldom do that.One time you treat your friends, your friends may treat you next time as return.

2.Westerners eat food which is in separate plates. Everyone has their own portion put in front of them. For Chinese people, all the dishes and soup are laid out in the center of the table, diners eat directly from the communal plates and bowls. So I think this kind of Chinese eating habit is not hygienic.

3.In the west, the formal regular diner includes appetizer, soup, entree, salad, choise of dessert,tea or coffee.Westerners eat following the regular sequence. Generally, Chinese people lay out all the food at once and eat what you like, no sequence should be followed,however, dishes are served in order in restaurants. Only in very formal situation, like wedding banquet, we eat dessert at the end of the banquet.

4.Except beer, when drinking wine, Whisky or brandy,westerners like to sip a bit and enjoy the flavor.They only pour wine into glass with one third or one fourth and toast in formal situation.In China, you are expected to drink wine with full glass to show your sincerity.We toast frequently both in formal and informal situation.In some rural areas, people use bowl in drinking,that may be terrible experience for those who has low capacity for liquor.
Talk about the differences in table manners between Chinese and Americans.
In the America, there are a certain way of what to do and where to seat. How to use the cutlery, most often, western table settings require that people use the cultery from the outside and work inwoards towards the plate. Thus, the knife and fork on the outside of the setting will be used first, usually for the first course. The knife and fork or spoon closest to the main late will be used for the last course.
Don’t put your own utensils into a serving bowl. Use the utensil in the bowl to put some of food on your own plate, and then return the serving utensil to the bowl.
Don’t spit food anywhere. If you have bones in your mouth, take them out with your fingers and place them on the edge of your plate, never on the table or on the floor.
Don’t drink soup out of the bowl. Use a spoon.
Don’t reach across the table or in front of another person. Ask someone to pass whatever you want.
Don’t put net shells or fruit peeling on the floor. Put them in a plate or an ash tray, or on a table.
Don’t belch out loud. If you do, you must say:“Excuse me”quietly and go on with the conversation.
Don’t sneeze or blow your nose anywhere except into a handkerchief or a kleenex. If you cough, cover your mouth with your hand.
When you have to leave, it is polite to seek out the host/hostess and thank them personally.
Our Chinese usually don’t use the knife and fork. We use the spoon and chopsticks. We use them at well. We usually seated around a round table. The Americans seated around a ellipse table or square table. The else are similar.
What are the differences in eating habits and table manners between Chinese and the American/British people？

Food:
Americans eat a lot of fast food such as hamburgers, pizza, and fried chicken, but their diet embraces an enormous range of foods from all over the world. Staples include potatoes, pasta, breads, and rice prepared with a variety of sauces. In the past two decades, eating habits have changed as people have become more health conscious, but many Americans continue to eat red meat (beef in particular) as well as pork, and chicken and other fowl. People visiting the US for the first time are often amazed at the size of the steaks and other portions of food served in restaurants. Fresh fish and seafood are widely available on the coasts and near major rivers and lakes, and a wide variety of fresh vegetables and fruit is available year-round. An extensive food-distribution system makes fresh farm products available to all parts of the country. Americans also consume large amounts of chocolate, ice cream, and other forms of confectionery. Although beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages are available and popular in most areas, many Americans abstain from alcohol for health or religious reasons, and various kinds of mineral water are commonly available.

Table manners:
Food is passed around the table
If something is out of your reach, you ask politely for someone to pass it to you
Not rude to leave plate full
Not rude to leave your plate empty
Not rude to take last item off dish

Eating habits:
Food is passed to the right
Try little of everything
Keep table cloth clean
Food lifted to mouth
Repulsive to talk with mouth full
No elbows on table

Eating habits and Table manners in China
The main difference between Chinese and western eating habits is that unlike the West, where everyone has their own plate of food, in China the dishes are placed on the table and everybody shares. If you are being treated by a Chinese host, be prepared for a ton of food. Chinese are very proud of their culture of cuisine and will do their best to show their hospitality.
And sometimes the Chinese host use their chopsticks to put food in your bowl or plate. This is a sign of politeness. The appropriate thing to do would be to eat the whatever-it-is and say how yummy it is. If you feel uncomfortable with this, you can just say a polite thank you and leave the food there.
Don't stick your chopsticks upright in the rice bowl. Instead, lay them on your dish. The reason for this is that when somebody dies, the shrine to them contains a bowl of sand or rice with two sticks of incense stuck upright in it. So if you stick your chopsticks in the rice bowl, it looks like this shrine and is equivalent to wishing death upon a person at the table!
Make sure the spout of the teapot is not facing anyone. It is impolite to set the teapot down where the spout is facing towards somebody. The spout should always be directed to where nobody is sitting, usually just outward from the table.
Don't tap on your bowl with your chopsticks. Beggars tap on their bowls, so this is not polite. Also, when the food is coming too slow in a restaurant, people will tap their bowls. If you are in someone's home, it is like insulting the cook.
Place bones or seeds in different dish and never take the last bit from a serving dish